 |
customer@davidpublishing.com |
 |
3275638434 |
 |
 |
| Paper Publishing WeChat |
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License
Durable "Green" Cement Concrete
James K. Hicks
Full-Text PDF
XML 49 Views
DOI:10.17265/1934-7359/2026.03.003
CeraTech, Inc. Frederick 21701, United States
Concrete is the most widely used man-made material, and the manufacture of portland cement – for approximately the last 150 years an active ingredient of concrete - accounts for 5 to 10 percent of all anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide, a leading greenhouse gas involved in global warming. Portland cement manufacture gives rise to carbon-dioxide emissions because it involves burning fuel to de-carbonate and heat a powdered mixture of limestone, clay and other raw materials to temperatures of 1,500 ºC (2,750 ºF) or more. Worldwide, the production of portland cement alone accounts for 6 to 8 percent of all human generated CO2 greenhouse gases. Because nearly 2.77 billion tonnes (3.05 billion stons) of portland and hydraulic cement was produced in 2007 and enormous amounts of water and aggregates were consumed in the production of concrete, the concrete construction sector has a responsibility to take immediate action to reduce its environmental impacts, including the generation reduction of CO2. This responsibility also brings the opportunity to develop innovative technologies. Discussed will be non-portland Green Cements, those products that are produced with reduced to no excess process energy, have a smaller to insignificant carbon footprint, are composed of recycled and/or renewable resources and which have minimal environmental impact. The scope of this paper will include discussion on permeability, corrosion and thermal resistance and comparative life cycle of portland and non-portland cements. Baseline comparisons between portland and non-portland systems will be presented to quantify reductions in CO2 generation achieved with green cements.
Green cements, carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions, portland cement
James K. Hicks. (2026). Durable "Green" Cement Concrete, Journal of Civil Engineering and Architecture, March 2026, Vol. 20, No. 3, 109-127.
[1] James K. Hicks, P. E., Mike Riley, Glenn Schumacher, Raj Patel and Paul Sampson, 2009, Utilization of Recycled Materials for High Quality Cements and Products, World of Coal Ash Conference, Lexington, KY, USA.
[2] USGS. 2003. “Green chemistry for sustainable cement production and use”, Green Chemistry, 8, 763-780.
[3] Minerals Yearbook, Vol. 1. Metals and Minerals, 2002. U.S. Geological Survey. U.S. Department of the Interior. Phair, J.W. (2006) E. Gartner, Cem. Concr. Res., 2004, 34, 1489.
[4] C. D. Popescu, M. Muntean and J. H. Sharp, Cem. Concrete Compos., 2003, 25, 689.
[5] Davidovits, Joseph, 1984. United States Patent Office (USPTO), U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,349,386 (1982) and 4,472,199 www.USPTO.gov.
[6] Davidovits, J. (1991) “Geopolymers: Inorganic polymeric new materials”, Journal of Thermal Analysis, 37(8), 1633.
[7] Guetzow, G. and Rapoport, J., 2010.“New Architectural Masonry Units Lower CO2, Energy Consumption” Masonry Edge/The Storypole, Vol. 5, No.1, pp.1-3.
[8] Hicks, J. (2010) “Durable "Green" Concrete from Activated Pozzolan Cement”, Proceedings of ASCE Green Streets and Highways Conference, Denver, CO.
[9] Lea, F. M., The Chemistry of Cement and Concrete, Arnold, 1970.
[10] Hicks, James K. and Scott, Ryan M., 2007. United States Patent Office (USPTO), U. S Patent 7,288,148 B2, Rapid Hardening Hydraulic Cement from Subbituminous Fly Ash and Products thereof, October 23, 2007.
[11] American Coal Ash Association (ACAA), 2009 Fly Ash Survey, (2010).
[12] Van Ost, Hendrik G, United States Geological Survey, Cement, 2002.
[13] Huntzinger, Deborah N and Eatmon, Thomas D., Journal of Cleaner Production, Elsevier, (2009) 668–675.
[14] Floris, Vinio, Challenges and Achievements of Coal-Based Power Generation: Moving Towards a Holistic and Sustainable Approach. Proceedings of the International Association of Energy Economics, Santiago, Chile (2009).
[15] Floris, Vinio, Hicks James K., “Environmental Benefits of Coal Combustion Products”, Pittsburgh Coal Conference, University of Pittsburg, PA (2009).
[16] California Environmental Protection Agency, Air US Coal Supply and Demand, 2007 Review, www.eia.doe.gov.coal, 2007.
[17] US Environmental Protection Agency. 2008. “Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2006”, Report No. 430-R-0805.
[18] www.epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/usgginventory.htmlUS Energy
Information Administration. www.eia.doe.
gov 2007Schlesinger, Richard. Energybiz, Coal Ash Piles Up (April/March 2009).
[19] Portland Cement Association (PCA), Economic Research, Market Data Reports, www.cement.org (2009).
[20] Davidovits, Joseph, United States Patent Office (USPTO), U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,349,386(1982) and 4,472,199 (1984), www.USPTO.gov.
[21] Hicks, James K, Utilization of Coal Combustion By-Products and Green Materials for Production of Hydraulic Cement, "Industrial Waste", ISBN 979-953-307-543-2. Intech, 2012
[22] van Deventer, Jannie S.J., et. al, “The role of research in the commercial development of geopolymer concrete”, www.cemmicro.org.
[23] U. S. Energy Information Administration, 2010 CO2 Forecast Highlights, www.eia.doe.gov/international (2010)
[24] Fernández-Jiménez, A., Palomo, A. (2009), “Nanostructure/microstructure of fly ash geopolymers”, in: Geopolymers: Structure, Processing, Properties, and Industrial Applications, J.L. Provis, J.S.J. Deventer Eds., CRC Press, Boca Raton, USA, pp. 89-117.
[25] Su, M., Wang, Y., Zhang, L., Li, D. (1997) “Preliminary study on the durability of sulfo/ferroaluminate cements”, p. 4iv029 in: Proceedings of the 10th International Congress on the Chemistry of Cement, Gothenburg, Sweden, H. Justnes (Ed.).
[26] Palomo, A., López dela Fuente, J.I. (2003) “Alkali-activated cementitious materials: alternative matrices for the immobilization of hazardous wastes. Part I. Stabilization of boron”, Cement and Concrete Research, 33, 285–295.
[27] Roy, D.M. (1999) “Alkali-activated cements: Opportunities and challenges”, Cement and Concrete Research, 29, 249–254.
[28] Shi, C., Day, R.L. (1996) “Some factors affecting early hydration of alkali-slag cements”, Cement and Concrete Research, 26, 439–447.
[29] Krizan, D., Zivanovic, B. (2002) “Effect of dosage and modulus of water glass on early hydration of alkali-slag cements”, Cement and Concrete Research, 32, 1181–1188.
[30] Chaunsali, P., Peethamparan, S. (2010) “Evolution of strength, microstructure and mineralogical composition of a CKD-GGBFS binder”, Cement and Concrete Research, oi:10.1016/j.cemconres.2010.11.010.
[31] Oh J.E., Monteiro, P.J.M., Jun S.S., Choi, S., Clark, S.M., (2010) “The evolution of strength and crystalline phases for alkali activated ground blast furnace slag and fly ash-based geopolymers”, Cement and Concrete Research, 40, 189-196.
[32] Song, S., Sohn, D., Jennings, H.M., Mason T.O. (2000) “Hydration of alkali-activated ground granulated blast furnace slag”, Journal of Materials Science, 35, 249-257.
[33] Atis, C.D., Bilim, C., Celik, O., Karahan, O. (2000) “Influence of activator on the strength and drying shrinkage of alkali-activated slag mortar”, Construction and Building Materials, 23, 548-555.
[34] Fernández-Jiménez, A., Puertas, F. (2002) “The alkali–silica reaction in alkali-activated granulated slag mortars with reactive aggregate”, Cement and Concrete Research, 32, 1019–1024.
[35] Shi, C., Krivenko, P.V., Roy, D. (2006), Alkali-Activated Cements and Concretes, Taylor and Francis, New York.
[36] Touzo B and Espinosa B., Glasser Symposium, http://www.abdn.ac.uk/chemistry/cement-symposium/abstracts, 2009 (accessed 01/02/2010).
[37] Juenger, M.C.G., Winnefeld, F., Provis, J.L., Ideker, J.H. (2010)
“Advances in alternative cementitious binders”, Cement and Concrete Research, doi:10.1016/j.cemconres.
2010.11.012.
[38] Scrivener, K.L., Capmas, A. (1998) “Calcium aluminate cements”, in: P.C. Hewlett (Ed.), Lea's Chemistry of Cement and Concrete, Elsevier, Ltd., Oxford, UK, pp. 713–782.
[39] “Calcium aluminate cements in construction: a re-assessment”, Concrete Society Technical Report TR 46, 1997
[40] Calcium Aluminate Cements: Proceedings of the Centenary Conference, Fentiman, C. et al. Eds, IHS BRE Press, Avignon, France, 2008.
[41] World CO2-Emissions Growth Keeps Focus on Coal, Bloomberg Business Week, June 10, 2009
[42] United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), Recent Trends in U.S. Greenhouse Gas, Climate Change, Emissions, 2010 Inventory of Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks, www.epa.gov/climatechange/emissions.
[43] British Petroleum, BP Statistical Review of World Energy, (2009)
[44] EIA International Energy
Outlook, EIA predicts surge in
world coal consumption, www.im-mining.com/ 2009/06/
07/eia-predicts-surge-in-world-coal-consumption/2009.
[45] Klein, A. (1966) “Expansive and shrinkage-compensated cements”, US Patent 3251701.
[46] Glasser, F.P., Zhang, L. (2001) “High-performance cement matrices based on calcium sulfoaluminate-belite compositions”, Cement and Concrete Research, 31, 1881-1886.
[47] Su, M., Wang, Y., Zhang, L., Li, D. (1997) “Preliminary study on the durability of sulfo/ferroaluminate cements”, p. 4iv029 in: Proceedings of the 10th International Congress on the Chemistry of Cement, Gothenburg, Sweden, H. Justnes (Ed.).
[48] Quillin, K. (2001) “Performance of belite-sulfoaluminate cements”, Cement and Concrete Research, 31, 1341-1349
[49] Mehta, P.K. (1980) “Investigations on energy-saving cements”, World Cement Technology, 11 (4) 166-177
[50] Juenger, M., Chen, I. (2011) “Composition-property relationships in calcium sulfoaluminate cements”, Proceedings of the 13th International Congress on the Chemistry of Cement, Madrid, Spain.
[51] Sharp, J.H., Lawrence, C.D., Yang, R. (1999) “Calcium sulfoaluminate cements – low-energy cements, special cements, or what?”, Advances in Cement Research, 11 (1) 3-13.
[52] Palou, M., Majling, J. (1995) “Preparation of the high iron sulfoaluminate belite cements from raw mixtures incorporating industrial wastes”, Ceramics – Silikáty, 39 (2) 41-80
[53] Phair, J.W. (2006) “Green chemistry for sustainable cement production and use”, Green Chemistry, 8, 763-780
[54] Reindl, J. (2003) “Reuse/recycling of glass cullet for non-container
uses”, http://www.glassonline.com/ infoserv/
Glass_recycle_reuse/Glass_reuse_recycling_doc1.pdf, Accessed on Nov. 30, 2010.
[55] Polley, C., Cramer, S.M., De La Cruz, R.V. (1998) “Potential for using waste glass in portland cement concrete”, ASCE Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 10, 210-219.
[56] Jin W., Meyer C., Baxter S. (2000) “Glascrete - concrete with glass aggregate”, ACI Materials Journal, 97(2) 208-213
[57] Rajabipour, F., Maraghechi, H., Fischer, G. (2010) “Investigating the alkali silica reaction of recycled glass aggregates in concrete materials”, ASCE Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 22(12) 1201-1208.
[58] Shao, Y.X., Leforta, T., Morasa, S., Rodriguez D. (2000) “Studies on concrete containing ground waste glass”, Cement and Concrete Research, 30, 91-100
[59] Shi, C.J., Wua, Y., Rieflerb, C., Wang, H. (2005) “Characteristics and pozzolanic reactivity of glass powders”, Cement and Concrete Research, 35, 987-993.
[60] Byars, E.A., Morales, B., Zhu, H.Y. (2004) “Conglasscrete II”, Report published by University of Sheffield.
[61] Shayan, A., Xu, A.M. (2006) “Performance of glass powder as a pozzolanic material in concrete: A field trial on concrete slabs”, Cement and Concrete Research, 36, 457-468
[62] A. J. W. Harrison, Reactive magnesium oxide cements, US Pat. 2003/0041785A1, 2003.
[63] Carr, M. and Morales, A. 2009. “World CO2-Emissions Growth Keeps Focus on Coal”, Bloomberg Business Week, June 10, 2009 http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news
[64] Clodic L., Patterson J., Holland T., 2010. “Next generation paving materials using mineralized CO2 captured from flue gas,” CD-Proceedings, FHWA International Conference on Sustainable Concrete Pavements., Sacramento, California, September.
[65] Guetzow, G. and Rapoport, J., 2010.“New Architectural Masonry Units Lower CO2, Energy Consumption” Masonry Edge/The Storypole, Vol. 5, No.1, pp.1-3.
[66] EIA International Energy Outlook, U. S Energy Administration 2011 CO2 Forecast Highlights. Report Number: DOE/EIA-0484(2010), http://205.254.135.24/forecasts/ieo/.
Hicks, James K., CCP Beneficial Use versus production, American Coal Ash Association, 2009, www.acaa-usa.org/.