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Article
Author(s)
Ammar Al-Khawlani
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DOI:10.17265/1539-8072/2018.03.001
Affiliation(s)
University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
ABSTRACT
The goal of autonomous language learning is to create an atmosphere where learners take charge of their own learning. Creating this atmosphere encounters various challenges which are partially context-specific. Influenced by the learning environment, learners of different educational contexts vary in their degree of autonomy. The present study examines the impact of the learning environment on learner autonomy at higher education. The study focuses on the differences between Polish and Yemeni EFL (English as a Foreign Language) learners with respect to their autonomy in language learning. A questionnaire was distributed to a total of 140 (59 Polish and 81 Yemeni) undergraduate learners. The questionnaire was coded into seven categories: beliefs and attitudes, planning, management, self-regulation, sources and materials, in-class responsibility, and out-of-class responsibility. Data were analysed quantitatively via SPSS (Statistical Product and Service Solutions). Independent Sample t-Test is used to investigate the differences between Polish and Yemeni learners and Pearson Correlation is used to perform correlational analysis among the seven categories. The results show significant differences between Polish and Yemeni learners in some of the categories as well as a significant correlation among other categories.
KEYWORDS
learner autonomy, learning environment, self-regulation, self-learning, self-directed learning, Poland, Yemen
Cite this paper
References
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Benson, P. (2007). Autonomy in language teaching and learning. Language Teaching, 40(1), 21-40.
Benson, P. (2008). Teachers’ and learners’ perspectives on autonomy. Learner and Teacher Autonomy: Concepts, Realities, and Response, 1, 15-32.
Benson, P. (2011). Teaching and researching autonomy in language learning (2nd ed.). London: Pearson Education.
Benson, P. (Ed.). (2004). Learners’ stories: Differences and diversity in language learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Borg, S., & Al-Busaidi, S. (2012). Learner autonomy: English language teachers’ beliefs and practices (ELT research paper 12-07). London, England: British Council. Retrieved from https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/sites/teacheng/files/b459%20ELTRP%20Report%20Busaidi_final.pdf
Boyadzhieva, E. (2016). Learner-centered teaching and learner autonomy. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 232, 35-40.
Ceylan, N. O. (2015). Fostering learner autonomy. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 199, 85-93.
Clemente M. de los A. (2003). Learning cultures and counselling: Teacher/learner interaction within a self-directed scheme. In D. Palfreyman and R. C. Smith (Eds.), Learner autonomy across cultures. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Cohn, S., & Fraser, B. (2013). Student response systems: Impact on the learning environment, student attitudes and achievement. In Learning environments: Technologies, challenges and impact assessment (pp. 185-216). New York: Nova Science Publishers.
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. (2001). Strasbourg: Couneil of Europe; Cambridge: CUP.
Cotterall, S. (2008). Autonomy and good language learners. In C. Griffiths (Ed.), Lessons from good language learners (pp. 110-119). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dickinson, L. (1992). Learner autonomy: Learner training for language learning. Dublin: Authentik.
Dörnyei, Z., & Taguchi, T. (2009). Questionnaires in second language research: Construction, administration, and processing. Routledge.
Duqin, W. (2002). Fostering learner autonomy in college English study. Foreign Language World, 5, 17-28.
Ellis, N. C. (2008). Implicit and explicit knowledge about language. In J. Cenoz and H. Hornberger (Eds.), Encyclopaedia of language and education: Knowledge about language (Vol. 6, pp. 119-132). New York: Springer.
Gass, S. M. (2004). Language teaching: Environment, presentation & complexity (Plenary address). In W. HU and Q. WEN (Eds.), Papers from the fourth international conference on ELT in China: New directions in ELT in China. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Holec, H. (1981). Autonomy and foreign language learning. Oxford: Pergamon. (First published 1979, Strasbourg: Council of Europe).
Holec, H. (2009). Autonomy in language learning: A single pedagogical paradigm or two? In F. Kjisik, P. Voller, N. Aoki & Y. Nakata (Eds.), Mapping the terrain of learner autonomy: Learning environments, learning communities and identities (pp. 21-47). Tampere, Finland: Tampere University Press.
Huttunen, I. (2002). Facilitating language teachers to develop meaning-oriented learning environments. In V. Kohonen and P. Kaikkonen (Eds.), Quo vadis foreign language education (Reports A27, pp. 199-216). Tampere, Finland: University of Tampere.
Ismail, N., Singh, D. S. R., & Abu, R. (2013). Fostering learner autonomy and academic writing interest via the use of structured e-forum activities among ESL students. Edulearn13 Proceedings, 4622-4626.
Kenny, B. (1993). For more autonomy. System, 21(4), 431-442.
Klimas, A. (2017) A goal-setting logbook as an instrument fostering learner autonomy. In M. Pawlak, A. Mystkowska-Wiertelak, and J. Bielak (Eds.), Autonomy in second language learning: Managing the resources. Cham: Springer.
Kohonen, V. (1992). Experiential language learning: Second language learning as cooperative learner education. In D. Nunan (Ed.), Collaborative language learning and teaching (pp. 14-39). Cambridge: CUP.
Komorowska, H. (2014). Language awareness: From embarras de richesses to terminological confusion. In A. Łyda and K. Szcześniak (Eds.), Awareness in action: The role of consciousness in language acquisition (pp. 3-20). Switzerland: Springer.
La Ganza, W. (2008). Learner autonomy—teacher autonomy: Interrelating and the will to empower. In T. Lamb and H. Reinders (Eds.), AILA applied linguistics series (Vol. 1, pp. 63-79). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Larsen-Freeman, D. (2002). Understanding language. In A. A. Pulverness (Ed.), IATEFL 2002: York conference selections (pp. 23-31). Whitstable: IATEFL.
Le, Q. X. (2013). Fostering learner autonomy in language learning in tertiary education: An intervention study of university students in Hochiminh City, Vietnam (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nottingham).
Lengkanawati, N. S. (2017). Learner autonomy in the Indonesian EFL settings. Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 6(2), 222-231.
Lennon, P. (2012). Learner autonomy in the English classroom: Empirical studies and ideas for teachers. Peter Lang GmbH, Internationaler Verlag der Wissenschaften. Eschborner Landstrasse 42-50, D-60489 Frankurt am Main, Germany.
Lewin, K. (1936). Principles of topological psychology. New York: McGraw.
Little, D. (1991). Learner autonomy 1: Definitions, issues and problems. Dublin: Authentik.
Little, D. (1999). Developing learner autonomy in the foreign language classroom: A social-interactive view of learning and three fundamental pedagogical principles. Revista Canaria de Estudios Ingleses, 38, 77-88.
Little, D. (2004). Constructing a theory of learner autonomy: Some steps along the way. In K. Mäkinen, P. Kaikkonen, and V. Kohonen (Eds.), Future perspectives in foreign language education (pp. 15-25). Oulu: Oulu University Press.
Little, D. (2006). Learner autonomy: Drawing together the threads of self-assessment, goal-setting and reflection. <http://archive.ecml.at/mtp2/ELP_TT/ELP_TT_CDROM/DM_layout/00_10/06/06%20Supplementary%20text.pdf>.
Little, D. (2017). Three versions of learner autonomy and their implications for English-medium degree programmes. In R. Breeze and C. Sancho Guinda (Eds.), Essential competencies for English-medium university teaching. Cham: Springer.
Little, D. & L. Dam (1998). Learner autonomy: What and why? The Language Teacher, 22 (10), 7-8, 15.
Manninen, J., Burman, A., Koivunen, A., Kuittinen, E., Luukannel, S., Passi, S., & Särkkä, H. (2007). Oppimista tukevat ympäristöt: Johdatus oppimisympäristöajatteluun (Environments supporting learning: Introduction to learning-environment-thinking). Helsinki: Finnish National Broad of Education.
Mononen-Aaltonen, M. (1998). A learning environment—A euphemism for instruction or a potential for dialogue. Media Education Publication, 8, 163-212.
Murray, H. A. (1938). Explorations in personality. New York: Oxford University Press.
National Core Curriculum for the Comprehensive School. (2004). Helsinki: Finnish National Board of Education, In Finnish.
Nguyen, L. T. C., & GU, Y., (2013). Strategy-based instruction: A learner-focused approach to developing learner autonomy. Language Teaching Research, 17(1), 9-30.
Norton, B. (2000). Identity and language learning: gender, ethnicity and educational change. Harlow: Longman: Pearson Education, 2000.
Nyman, T., & Kaikkonen, P. (2013). What kind of learning environment do newly qualified teachers create? Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 57(2), 167-181.
Pawlak, M. (2017). The role of autonomy in learning and teaching foreign language grammar. In M. Pawlak, A. Mystkowska-Wiertelak, and J. Bielak (Eds.), Autonomy in second language learning: Managing the resources. Cham: Springer.
Pemberton, R., LI, E. S. L., Or, W. W. F., & Pierson, H. D. (Eds.). (1996). Taking control: Autonomy in language learning. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.
Rogers, C. R. (1961). On becoming a person: A therapist’s view of psychotherapy. London: Constable.
Savage, W., & Storer, G. (1992). An emergent language program framework: Actively involving learners in needs analysis. System, 20, 187-199.
Smith, R. C. (2003) Pedagogy for autonomy as (becoming-) appropriate methodology. In D. Palfreyman and R. C. Smith (Eds.), Learner autonomy across cultures. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Smith, R., Kuchah, K., Lamb, M. (2018). Learner autonomy in developing countries. In A. Chik, N. Aoki, and R. Smith (Eds.), Autonomy in language learning and teaching. London: Palgrave Pivot.
Spratt, M., Humphreys, G., & Chan, V. (2002). Autonomy and motivation: Which comes first? Language Teaching Research, 6(3), 245-266.
Stroupe, R., Rundle, C., & Tomita, K. (2016). Developing autonomous learners in Japan: Working with teachers through professional development. In R. Barnard and J. LI (Eds.), Language learner autonomy: Teachers’ beliefs and practices in Asian contexts (pp. 43-61). Phnom Penh: IDP Education.
Thanasoulas, D. (2000). What is learner autonomy and how can it be fostered. The Internet TESL Journal, 6(11), 37-48.
Veermans, M., & Tapola, A. (2006). Motivaatio, emootiot ja oppimisen itsesäätely teknologiaympäristössä (Motivation, emotions and the self-regulation of learning in a technological environment). In S. Teoksessa, P. H. Järvelä, and E. Lehtinen (Ed.), Oppimisen teoria ja teknologian opetuskäyttö (pp. 65-84) (Theory of learning and use of technology in teaching). Helsinki: WSOY.
WANG, Y., & WANG, M. (2016). Developing learner autonomy: Chinese university EFL teachers’ perceptions and practices. In R. Barnard and J. LI (Eds.), Language learner autonomy: Teachers’ beliefs and practices in Asian contexts (pp. 23-42). Phnom Penh: IDP Education.
Weinstein, C. E., Acee, T. W., Jung, J., & Dearman, J. K. (2011). Strategic and self-regulated learning for the 21st century: The merging of skill, will and self-regulation. In Independent language learning: Building on experience, seeking new perspectives (pp. 41-54). Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, HKU.
Wenden, A. (1987). Conceptual background and utility. In A. Wenden and J. Rubin (Eds.), Learner strategies in language learning (pp. 159-168). London: Prentice Hall.
Wentzel, K. R. (1999). Social-motivational processes and interpersonal relationships: Implications for understanding motivation at school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 76-97.
White, C. (2008). Language learning strategies in independent language learning: An overview. In T. W. Lewis and M. S. Hurd (Eds.), Language learning strategies in independent settings (pp. 3-24). Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.
Xhaferi, B., & Xhaferi, G. (2011). Developing learner autonomy in higher education in Macedonia. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 11, 150-154.
Young, R. (1986). Personal autonomy: Beyond negative and positive liberty. London: Croom Helm.
Benson, P. (2007). Autonomy in language teaching and learning. Language Teaching, 40(1), 21-40.
Benson, P. (2008). Teachers’ and learners’ perspectives on autonomy. Learner and Teacher Autonomy: Concepts, Realities, and Response, 1, 15-32.
Benson, P. (2011). Teaching and researching autonomy in language learning (2nd ed.). London: Pearson Education.
Benson, P. (Ed.). (2004). Learners’ stories: Differences and diversity in language learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Borg, S., & Al-Busaidi, S. (2012). Learner autonomy: English language teachers’ beliefs and practices (ELT research paper 12-07). London, England: British Council. Retrieved from https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/sites/teacheng/files/b459%20ELTRP%20Report%20Busaidi_final.pdf
Boyadzhieva, E. (2016). Learner-centered teaching and learner autonomy. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 232, 35-40.
Ceylan, N. O. (2015). Fostering learner autonomy. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 199, 85-93.
Clemente M. de los A. (2003). Learning cultures and counselling: Teacher/learner interaction within a self-directed scheme. In D. Palfreyman and R. C. Smith (Eds.), Learner autonomy across cultures. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Cohn, S., & Fraser, B. (2013). Student response systems: Impact on the learning environment, student attitudes and achievement. In Learning environments: Technologies, challenges and impact assessment (pp. 185-216). New York: Nova Science Publishers.
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. (2001). Strasbourg: Couneil of Europe; Cambridge: CUP.
Cotterall, S. (2008). Autonomy and good language learners. In C. Griffiths (Ed.), Lessons from good language learners (pp. 110-119). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dickinson, L. (1992). Learner autonomy: Learner training for language learning. Dublin: Authentik.
Dörnyei, Z., & Taguchi, T. (2009). Questionnaires in second language research: Construction, administration, and processing. Routledge.
Duqin, W. (2002). Fostering learner autonomy in college English study. Foreign Language World, 5, 17-28.
Ellis, N. C. (2008). Implicit and explicit knowledge about language. In J. Cenoz and H. Hornberger (Eds.), Encyclopaedia of language and education: Knowledge about language (Vol. 6, pp. 119-132). New York: Springer.
Gass, S. M. (2004). Language teaching: Environment, presentation & complexity (Plenary address). In W. HU and Q. WEN (Eds.), Papers from the fourth international conference on ELT in China: New directions in ELT in China. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Holec, H. (1981). Autonomy and foreign language learning. Oxford: Pergamon. (First published 1979, Strasbourg: Council of Europe).
Holec, H. (2009). Autonomy in language learning: A single pedagogical paradigm or two? In F. Kjisik, P. Voller, N. Aoki & Y. Nakata (Eds.), Mapping the terrain of learner autonomy: Learning environments, learning communities and identities (pp. 21-47). Tampere, Finland: Tampere University Press.
Huttunen, I. (2002). Facilitating language teachers to develop meaning-oriented learning environments. In V. Kohonen and P. Kaikkonen (Eds.), Quo vadis foreign language education (Reports A27, pp. 199-216). Tampere, Finland: University of Tampere.
Ismail, N., Singh, D. S. R., & Abu, R. (2013). Fostering learner autonomy and academic writing interest via the use of structured e-forum activities among ESL students. Edulearn13 Proceedings, 4622-4626.
Kenny, B. (1993). For more autonomy. System, 21(4), 431-442.
Klimas, A. (2017) A goal-setting logbook as an instrument fostering learner autonomy. In M. Pawlak, A. Mystkowska-Wiertelak, and J. Bielak (Eds.), Autonomy in second language learning: Managing the resources. Cham: Springer.
Kohonen, V. (1992). Experiential language learning: Second language learning as cooperative learner education. In D. Nunan (Ed.), Collaborative language learning and teaching (pp. 14-39). Cambridge: CUP.
Komorowska, H. (2014). Language awareness: From embarras de richesses to terminological confusion. In A. Łyda and K. Szcześniak (Eds.), Awareness in action: The role of consciousness in language acquisition (pp. 3-20). Switzerland: Springer.
La Ganza, W. (2008). Learner autonomy—teacher autonomy: Interrelating and the will to empower. In T. Lamb and H. Reinders (Eds.), AILA applied linguistics series (Vol. 1, pp. 63-79). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Larsen-Freeman, D. (2002). Understanding language. In A. A. Pulverness (Ed.), IATEFL 2002: York conference selections (pp. 23-31). Whitstable: IATEFL.
Le, Q. X. (2013). Fostering learner autonomy in language learning in tertiary education: An intervention study of university students in Hochiminh City, Vietnam (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nottingham).
Lengkanawati, N. S. (2017). Learner autonomy in the Indonesian EFL settings. Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 6(2), 222-231.
Lennon, P. (2012). Learner autonomy in the English classroom: Empirical studies and ideas for teachers. Peter Lang GmbH, Internationaler Verlag der Wissenschaften. Eschborner Landstrasse 42-50, D-60489 Frankurt am Main, Germany.
Lewin, K. (1936). Principles of topological psychology. New York: McGraw.
Little, D. (1991). Learner autonomy 1: Definitions, issues and problems. Dublin: Authentik.
Little, D. (1999). Developing learner autonomy in the foreign language classroom: A social-interactive view of learning and three fundamental pedagogical principles. Revista Canaria de Estudios Ingleses, 38, 77-88.
Little, D. (2004). Constructing a theory of learner autonomy: Some steps along the way. In K. Mäkinen, P. Kaikkonen, and V. Kohonen (Eds.), Future perspectives in foreign language education (pp. 15-25). Oulu: Oulu University Press.
Little, D. (2006). Learner autonomy: Drawing together the threads of self-assessment, goal-setting and reflection. <http://archive.ecml.at/mtp2/ELP_TT/ELP_TT_CDROM/DM_layout/00_10/06/06%20Supplementary%20text.pdf>.
Little, D. (2017). Three versions of learner autonomy and their implications for English-medium degree programmes. In R. Breeze and C. Sancho Guinda (Eds.), Essential competencies for English-medium university teaching. Cham: Springer.
Little, D. & L. Dam (1998). Learner autonomy: What and why? The Language Teacher, 22 (10), 7-8, 15.
Manninen, J., Burman, A., Koivunen, A., Kuittinen, E., Luukannel, S., Passi, S., & Särkkä, H. (2007). Oppimista tukevat ympäristöt: Johdatus oppimisympäristöajatteluun (Environments supporting learning: Introduction to learning-environment-thinking). Helsinki: Finnish National Broad of Education.
Mononen-Aaltonen, M. (1998). A learning environment—A euphemism for instruction or a potential for dialogue. Media Education Publication, 8, 163-212.
Murray, H. A. (1938). Explorations in personality. New York: Oxford University Press.
National Core Curriculum for the Comprehensive School. (2004). Helsinki: Finnish National Board of Education, In Finnish.
Nguyen, L. T. C., & GU, Y., (2013). Strategy-based instruction: A learner-focused approach to developing learner autonomy. Language Teaching Research, 17(1), 9-30.
Norton, B. (2000). Identity and language learning: gender, ethnicity and educational change. Harlow: Longman: Pearson Education, 2000.
Nyman, T., & Kaikkonen, P. (2013). What kind of learning environment do newly qualified teachers create? Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 57(2), 167-181.
Pawlak, M. (2017). The role of autonomy in learning and teaching foreign language grammar. In M. Pawlak, A. Mystkowska-Wiertelak, and J. Bielak (Eds.), Autonomy in second language learning: Managing the resources. Cham: Springer.
Pemberton, R., LI, E. S. L., Or, W. W. F., & Pierson, H. D. (Eds.). (1996). Taking control: Autonomy in language learning. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.
Rogers, C. R. (1961). On becoming a person: A therapist’s view of psychotherapy. London: Constable.
Savage, W., & Storer, G. (1992). An emergent language program framework: Actively involving learners in needs analysis. System, 20, 187-199.
Smith, R. C. (2003) Pedagogy for autonomy as (becoming-) appropriate methodology. In D. Palfreyman and R. C. Smith (Eds.), Learner autonomy across cultures. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Smith, R., Kuchah, K., Lamb, M. (2018). Learner autonomy in developing countries. In A. Chik, N. Aoki, and R. Smith (Eds.), Autonomy in language learning and teaching. London: Palgrave Pivot.
Spratt, M., Humphreys, G., & Chan, V. (2002). Autonomy and motivation: Which comes first? Language Teaching Research, 6(3), 245-266.
Stroupe, R., Rundle, C., & Tomita, K. (2016). Developing autonomous learners in Japan: Working with teachers through professional development. In R. Barnard and J. LI (Eds.), Language learner autonomy: Teachers’ beliefs and practices in Asian contexts (pp. 43-61). Phnom Penh: IDP Education.
Thanasoulas, D. (2000). What is learner autonomy and how can it be fostered. The Internet TESL Journal, 6(11), 37-48.
Veermans, M., & Tapola, A. (2006). Motivaatio, emootiot ja oppimisen itsesäätely teknologiaympäristössä (Motivation, emotions and the self-regulation of learning in a technological environment). In S. Teoksessa, P. H. Järvelä, and E. Lehtinen (Ed.), Oppimisen teoria ja teknologian opetuskäyttö (pp. 65-84) (Theory of learning and use of technology in teaching). Helsinki: WSOY.
WANG, Y., & WANG, M. (2016). Developing learner autonomy: Chinese university EFL teachers’ perceptions and practices. In R. Barnard and J. LI (Eds.), Language learner autonomy: Teachers’ beliefs and practices in Asian contexts (pp. 23-42). Phnom Penh: IDP Education.
Weinstein, C. E., Acee, T. W., Jung, J., & Dearman, J. K. (2011). Strategic and self-regulated learning for the 21st century: The merging of skill, will and self-regulation. In Independent language learning: Building on experience, seeking new perspectives (pp. 41-54). Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, HKU.
Wenden, A. (1987). Conceptual background and utility. In A. Wenden and J. Rubin (Eds.), Learner strategies in language learning (pp. 159-168). London: Prentice Hall.
Wentzel, K. R. (1999). Social-motivational processes and interpersonal relationships: Implications for understanding motivation at school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 76-97.
White, C. (2008). Language learning strategies in independent language learning: An overview. In T. W. Lewis and M. S. Hurd (Eds.), Language learning strategies in independent settings (pp. 3-24). Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.
Xhaferi, B., & Xhaferi, G. (2011). Developing learner autonomy in higher education in Macedonia. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 11, 150-154.
Young, R. (1986). Personal autonomy: Beyond negative and positive liberty. London: Croom Helm.