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Article
Using Neuroeducation as a Model to Evaluate the Effect of Imagery on Chinese Character Writing
Author(s)
Carol X. Lam, Ellyn L. Arwood
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DOI:10.17265/1539-8072/2017.05.002
Affiliation(s)
University of Portland School of Education, Portland, Oregon, USA
ABSTRACT
Using imagery as a strategy for language learning may be helpful to encode linguistic forms into conceptual networks for long-term memory. Based on Arwood’s neuroeducation model of language learning, this research evaluated the effect of imagery in Chinese character writing by English-speaking adolescent students. After comparing imagery effects under three instructional conditions (i.e., English translation, pictorial presentation, and verbal-contextual interpretation), the results showed that the use of imagery predicted significantly better writing results in the immediate and one-week writing tests, but not in the four-week writing test. Cognitive analyses found that imagery was commonly used as a mediational strategy in the pictorial and verbal-contextual methods in the early learning phases. The pictorial method mainly elicited perceptual visual patterns which failed to support sustained memory. For a better character encoding and retrieval, images had to be generated associated with sufficient and relevant contextual information.
KEYWORDS
imagery, neuroeducation, Chinese character writing, memory, mediational strategy
Cite this paper
References
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Arwood, E. (1983). Pragmaticism: Theory and application. Rockville, MD: Aspen Systems Corporation.
Arwood, E. (1991). Semantic and pragmatic language disorders (2nd ed.). Rockville, MD: Aspen Systems Corporation.
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Arwood, E., & Merideth, C. (2017). Neuro-education: A translation from theory to practice. An ArwoodNeuro-Viconics Publication: A Division of APRICOT, Inc.
Arwood, E., Kaulitz, C., & Brown, M. M. (2009). Visual thinking strategies for individuals with autism spectrum disorders: The language of pictures. Shawnee Mission, Kan.: APC.
Atkinson, R. C., & Raugh, M. R. (1975). An application of the mnemonic keyword method to the acquisition of a Russian vocabulary. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 104, 126-133.
Behrmann, M. (2000). The mind’s eye mapped onto the brain’s matter. CurrPsychol Science, 9, 50-54.
Belardinelli, M. O., Palmiero, M., & Di Matteo, R. (2011). How fMRI technology contributes to the advancement of research in mental imagery: A review. In Julio F. P. Peres (Eds.), Neuroimaging for clinicians-combing research and practice (pp. 329-346). Retrieved from
https://www.intechopen.com/books/neuroimaging-for-clinicians-combining-research-and-practice/how-fmri-technology-contributes-to-the-advancement-of-research-in-mental-imagery-a-review
Berger, G. H., & Gaunitz, S. C. (1979). Self-rated imagery and encoding strategies in visual memory. British Journal of Psychology, 70(1), 21-24.
Bower, G. H. (1970). Imagery as a relational organizer in associative learning. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 9, 529-533.
Brysbaert, M., & New, B. (2009). Moving beyond Kucera and Francis: A critical evaluation of current word frequency norms and the introduction of a new and improved word frequency measure for American English. Behavior Research Methods, 41(4), 977-990.
Campbell, R. (2008). The processing of audio-visual speech: Empirical and neural bases. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., B Biol. Sci.363, 1001-1010.
Chambers, D., & Reisberg, D. (1985). Can mental images be ambiguous? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 11(3), 317-328.
Chang, L., Stafura, J. Z., Rickles, B., Chen, H., & Perfetti, C. A. (2014). Incremental learning of Chinese orthography: ERP indicators of animated and static stroke displays on character form and meaning acquisition. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 33, 78-95.
Clarke A., & Tyler, L. K. (2014). Object-specific semantic coding in human perirhinal cortex. J Neurosci, 34(14), 4766-4775.
Curtis, C. E., & D’Esposito, M. (2003). Persistent activity in the prefrontal cortex during working memory. Trends CognSci, 7, 415-423.
D’Esposito, M., Detre, J.A., Aguirre, G. K., Stallcup, M., Alsop, D. C., Tippet, L. J., & Farah, M. (1997). A functional MRI study of mental image generation. Neuropsychologia, 35(5), 725-730.
Doehrmann, O., & Naumer, M. (2008). Semantics and the multisensory brain: How meaning modulates processes of audio-visual integration. Brain Research, 1242, 136-150.
Driver, J., & Mattingley, J. B. (1998). Parietal neglect and visual awareness. Nature Neuroscience, 1(1), 17-22.
Duffett, J. L., (2016). A neuroeducation description of a paradigm shift in identification, assessment, and treatment of suspected childhood apraxia of speech with supporting evidence through interview and artifact analysis provided by speech language pathologists and educators (Graduate theses and dissertations). Retrieved from http://pilotscholars.up.edu/etd/4
Enns, J. (2004). The thinking eye, the seeing brain: Explorations in visual cognition (1st ed.). New York: W.W. Norton.
Farah, M. J. (1995). Current issues in neuropsychology of image generation. Neuropsychologia, 33, 1455-1471.
Farah, M., Weisberg, L., Monheit, M., & Peronnet, F. (1989). Brain activity underlying mental imagery: Event-related potentials during mental image generation. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 1(4), 302-316.
Finke, R. (1989). Principles of mental imagery. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
Gainotti, G., Ciaraffa, F., Silveri, M. C., & Marra, C. (2009). Mental representation of normal subjects about the sources of knowledge in different semantic categories and unique entities. Neuropsychology, 23(6), 803-812. doi:10.1037/a0016352
Ganis, G., Thompson, W., & Kosslyn, S. (2004). Brain areas underlying visual mental imagery and visual perception: An fMRI study. Brain Research, Cognitive Brain Research, 20(2), 226-241.
Goodale, M. A., Milner, A. D., Jakobson, L. S., & Carey, D. P. (1991). A neurological dissociation between perceiving objects and grasping them. Nature, 349(6305), 154-156.
GU, L. (2006). Picture characters: Learning Chinese characters through pictographs. Hong Kong: China Books & Periodicals, Inc.
Heikkila, J., Alho, K., Hyvonen, H., & Tiippana, K. (2015). Audiovisual semantic congruency during encoding enhances memory performance. Experimental Psychology, 62(2), 123-130.
Kamiński, J. et al. (2017). Persistently active neurons in human medial frontal and medial temporal lobe support working memory. Nature Neuroscience, 20, 590-601.
Keogh, R., & Pearson, J. (2011). Mental imagery and visual working memory. Plos ONE, 6(12), 1-8. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0029221
Klemen, J., & Chambers, C. D. (2012). Current perspectives and methods in studying neural mechanisms of multisensory interactions. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 36(1), 111-133. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2011.04.015
Kosslyn, S. M. (1980). Image and mind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University.
Kosslyn, S. M., & Thompson, W. L. (2003). When is early visual cortex activated during visual mental imagery? Psychological Bulletin, 129(5), 723-746.
Kosslyn, S.M. (1994). Image and brain: The resolution of the imagery debate. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Kuo, M. A., & Hooper, S. (2004). The effects of visual and verbal coding mnemonics on learning Chinese characters in computer-based instruction. Educational Technology Research and Development, 52(3), 23-38.
Lam, C. X. (2016). Investigating semantic alignment in character learning of Chinese as a foreign language: The use and effect of the imagery based encoding strategy (Graduate theses and dissertations). Retrieved from http://pilotscholars.up.edu/etd/1
Lam, C. X. (2017). A literature review of neuroeducation. In E. L. Arwood & C. Merideth (Eds.), Neuro-education: A translation from theory to practice (pp. 28-42). An ArwoodNeuro-Viconics Publication: A Division of APRICOT, Inc.
LU, M. P. (2011). The effect of instructional embodiment designs on Chinese language learning: The use of embodied animation for beginning learners of Chinese characters (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest.
Luck, S. J., & Vogel, E. K. (1997). The capacity of visual working memory for features and conjunctions. Nature, 390, 279-281.
Luk, G., & Bialystok, E. (2005). How iconic are Chinese characters? Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 8(1), 79-83.
Matthews, A., & Matthews, L. (2007). Tuttle learning Chinese characters. Hong Kong: Tuttle Publishing.
Mazard, A., Laou, L., Joliot, M., & Mellet, E. (2005). Neural impact of the semantic content to visual mental images and visual percepts. Cognitive Brain Research, 24, 423-435.
O’Craven, K., & Kanwisher, N. (2000). Mental imagery of faces and places activates corresponding stimulus-specific brain regions. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12(6), 1013-1023.
Olivetti Belardinelli, M., Palmiero, M., Sestieri, C., Nardo, D., Di Matteo, R., Londei, A., D’Ausilio, A., Ferretti, A., Del Gratta, C., Romani, G. L. (2009). An fMRI investigation on image generation in different sensory modalities: The influence of vividness. ActaPsychologica, 132(2), 190-200.
Paivio, A. (1969). Mental images in associative learning and memory. Psychological Review, 76(3), 241-263.
Palva, J. M., Monto, S., Kulashekhar, S., & Palva, S. (2010). Neuronal synchrony reveals working memory networks and predicts individual memory capacity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107(16), 7580-5.
Pessoa, L., Gutierrez, E., Bandettini, P., & Ungerleider, L. (2002). Neural correlates of visual working memory: fMRI amplitude predicts task performance. Neuron, 35, 975-987.
Poldrack, R. A., Wagner, A. D., Prull, M. W., Desmond, J. E., Glover, G. H., & Gabrieli, J. D. (1999). Functional specialization for semantic and phonological processing in the left inferior prefrontal cortex. NeuroImage, 10, 15-35.
Pylyshyn, Z. W. (1973). What the mind’s eye tells the mind’s brain: A critique of mental imagery. Psychological Bulletin, 80, 1-24.
Pylyshyn, Z. W. (2002). Mental imagery: In search of a theory. Behavioral & Brain Sciences, 25(2), 157-238.
Pylyshyn, Z. W. (2003). Seeing and visualizing: It’s not what you think. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Robb, B. E. (2016). A paradigm shift in classroom learning practices to propose methods aligned with a neuroeducationconceptual framework (Graduate theses and dissertations). Retrieved from http://pilotscholars.up.edu/etd/2
Segal, M. (2005). Dendritic spines and long-term plasticity. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 6, 277-284. doi:10.1038/nrn1649
Singer, W. (2009). Distributed processing and temporal codes in neuronal networks. Cognitive Neurodynamics, 3, 189-196.
Squire, L. R. (1987). Memory and brain. New York: Oxford University Press.
Stevenson, R. A., VanDerKlok, R. M., Pisoni, D. B., & James, T. W. (2011). Discrete neural substrates underlie complementary audiovisual speech integration processes. Neuroimage, 55(3), 1339-1345.
TAN, H. P. (1998). What’s in a Chinese character? Beijing: New World Press.
WANG, A. Y., & Thomas, M. H. (1992). The effect of imagery-based mnemonics on the long-term retention of Chinese characters. Language Learning, 42(3), 359-376.
WANG, C., & ZHENG, C. Q. (2005). Chinese characters in pictures (1 & 2). Beijing: Sinolingua.
Weekes, B. S., YIN, W., SU, F., & CHEN, M. J. (2006). The cognitive neuropsychology of reading and writing in Chinese. Language and Linguistics, 7(3), 595-617.
Wimmer, M., Maras, K., Robinson, E., & Thomas, C. (2016). The format of children’s mental images: Evidence from mental scanning. Cognition, 154, 49-54.
Womelsdorf, T. (2007). Modulation of neuronal interactions through neuronal synchronization. Science, 316, 1609-1612.
Wyra, M., Lawson, M., & Hungi, N. (2007). Ability to make images questionnaire (Database record). Retrieved from PsycTESTS. doi: 10.1037/t15783-000
ZHANG, H. F. (2005). Learning Chinese characters from Ms. Zhang: Reading and writing Chinese characters (A & B). Beijing: Beijing Language and Culture University Press.
Zull, J. (2011). From brain to mind using neuroscience to guide change in education. Sterling: Stylus Publishing.
Arwood, E. (1983). Pragmaticism: Theory and application. Rockville, MD: Aspen Systems Corporation.
Arwood, E. (1991). Semantic and pragmatic language disorders (2nd ed.). Rockville, MD: Aspen Systems Corporation.
Arwood, E. (2011). Language function: An introduction to pragmatic assessment and intervention. London, UK: Jessica Kingsley.
Arwood, E. (Nov., 2014). Neuroeducation: A translation of neuroscience, cognitive psychology, and language for effective literacy practices for those with autism spectrum disorders. Spatial Intelligence Learning Pre-Conference for International Mind, Brain, and Education Society Conference.
Arwood, E., & Merideth, C. (2017). Neuro-education: A translation from theory to practice. An ArwoodNeuro-Viconics Publication: A Division of APRICOT, Inc.
Arwood, E., Kaulitz, C., & Brown, M. M. (2009). Visual thinking strategies for individuals with autism spectrum disorders: The language of pictures. Shawnee Mission, Kan.: APC.
Atkinson, R. C., & Raugh, M. R. (1975). An application of the mnemonic keyword method to the acquisition of a Russian vocabulary. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 104, 126-133.
Behrmann, M. (2000). The mind’s eye mapped onto the brain’s matter. CurrPsychol Science, 9, 50-54.
Belardinelli, M. O., Palmiero, M., & Di Matteo, R. (2011). How fMRI technology contributes to the advancement of research in mental imagery: A review. In Julio F. P. Peres (Eds.), Neuroimaging for clinicians-combing research and practice (pp. 329-346). Retrieved from
https://www.intechopen.com/books/neuroimaging-for-clinicians-combining-research-and-practice/how-fmri-technology-contributes-to-the-advancement-of-research-in-mental-imagery-a-review
Berger, G. H., & Gaunitz, S. C. (1979). Self-rated imagery and encoding strategies in visual memory. British Journal of Psychology, 70(1), 21-24.
Bower, G. H. (1970). Imagery as a relational organizer in associative learning. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 9, 529-533.
Brysbaert, M., & New, B. (2009). Moving beyond Kucera and Francis: A critical evaluation of current word frequency norms and the introduction of a new and improved word frequency measure for American English. Behavior Research Methods, 41(4), 977-990.
Campbell, R. (2008). The processing of audio-visual speech: Empirical and neural bases. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., B Biol. Sci.363, 1001-1010.
Chambers, D., & Reisberg, D. (1985). Can mental images be ambiguous? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 11(3), 317-328.
Chang, L., Stafura, J. Z., Rickles, B., Chen, H., & Perfetti, C. A. (2014). Incremental learning of Chinese orthography: ERP indicators of animated and static stroke displays on character form and meaning acquisition. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 33, 78-95.
Clarke A., & Tyler, L. K. (2014). Object-specific semantic coding in human perirhinal cortex. J Neurosci, 34(14), 4766-4775.
Curtis, C. E., & D’Esposito, M. (2003). Persistent activity in the prefrontal cortex during working memory. Trends CognSci, 7, 415-423.
D’Esposito, M., Detre, J.A., Aguirre, G. K., Stallcup, M., Alsop, D. C., Tippet, L. J., & Farah, M. (1997). A functional MRI study of mental image generation. Neuropsychologia, 35(5), 725-730.
Doehrmann, O., & Naumer, M. (2008). Semantics and the multisensory brain: How meaning modulates processes of audio-visual integration. Brain Research, 1242, 136-150.
Driver, J., & Mattingley, J. B. (1998). Parietal neglect and visual awareness. Nature Neuroscience, 1(1), 17-22.
Duffett, J. L., (2016). A neuroeducation description of a paradigm shift in identification, assessment, and treatment of suspected childhood apraxia of speech with supporting evidence through interview and artifact analysis provided by speech language pathologists and educators (Graduate theses and dissertations). Retrieved from http://pilotscholars.up.edu/etd/4
Enns, J. (2004). The thinking eye, the seeing brain: Explorations in visual cognition (1st ed.). New York: W.W. Norton.
Farah, M. J. (1995). Current issues in neuropsychology of image generation. Neuropsychologia, 33, 1455-1471.
Farah, M., Weisberg, L., Monheit, M., & Peronnet, F. (1989). Brain activity underlying mental imagery: Event-related potentials during mental image generation. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 1(4), 302-316.
Finke, R. (1989). Principles of mental imagery. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
Gainotti, G., Ciaraffa, F., Silveri, M. C., & Marra, C. (2009). Mental representation of normal subjects about the sources of knowledge in different semantic categories and unique entities. Neuropsychology, 23(6), 803-812. doi:10.1037/a0016352
Ganis, G., Thompson, W., & Kosslyn, S. (2004). Brain areas underlying visual mental imagery and visual perception: An fMRI study. Brain Research, Cognitive Brain Research, 20(2), 226-241.
Goodale, M. A., Milner, A. D., Jakobson, L. S., & Carey, D. P. (1991). A neurological dissociation between perceiving objects and grasping them. Nature, 349(6305), 154-156.
GU, L. (2006). Picture characters: Learning Chinese characters through pictographs. Hong Kong: China Books & Periodicals, Inc.
Heikkila, J., Alho, K., Hyvonen, H., & Tiippana, K. (2015). Audiovisual semantic congruency during encoding enhances memory performance. Experimental Psychology, 62(2), 123-130.
Kamiński, J. et al. (2017). Persistently active neurons in human medial frontal and medial temporal lobe support working memory. Nature Neuroscience, 20, 590-601.
Keogh, R., & Pearson, J. (2011). Mental imagery and visual working memory. Plos ONE, 6(12), 1-8. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0029221
Klemen, J., & Chambers, C. D. (2012). Current perspectives and methods in studying neural mechanisms of multisensory interactions. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 36(1), 111-133. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2011.04.015
Kosslyn, S. M. (1980). Image and mind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University.
Kosslyn, S. M., & Thompson, W. L. (2003). When is early visual cortex activated during visual mental imagery? Psychological Bulletin, 129(5), 723-746.
Kosslyn, S.M. (1994). Image and brain: The resolution of the imagery debate. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Kuo, M. A., & Hooper, S. (2004). The effects of visual and verbal coding mnemonics on learning Chinese characters in computer-based instruction. Educational Technology Research and Development, 52(3), 23-38.
Lam, C. X. (2016). Investigating semantic alignment in character learning of Chinese as a foreign language: The use and effect of the imagery based encoding strategy (Graduate theses and dissertations). Retrieved from http://pilotscholars.up.edu/etd/1
Lam, C. X. (2017). A literature review of neuroeducation. In E. L. Arwood & C. Merideth (Eds.), Neuro-education: A translation from theory to practice (pp. 28-42). An ArwoodNeuro-Viconics Publication: A Division of APRICOT, Inc.
LU, M. P. (2011). The effect of instructional embodiment designs on Chinese language learning: The use of embodied animation for beginning learners of Chinese characters (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest.
Luck, S. J., & Vogel, E. K. (1997). The capacity of visual working memory for features and conjunctions. Nature, 390, 279-281.
Luk, G., & Bialystok, E. (2005). How iconic are Chinese characters? Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 8(1), 79-83.
Matthews, A., & Matthews, L. (2007). Tuttle learning Chinese characters. Hong Kong: Tuttle Publishing.
Mazard, A., Laou, L., Joliot, M., & Mellet, E. (2005). Neural impact of the semantic content to visual mental images and visual percepts. Cognitive Brain Research, 24, 423-435.
O’Craven, K., & Kanwisher, N. (2000). Mental imagery of faces and places activates corresponding stimulus-specific brain regions. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12(6), 1013-1023.
Olivetti Belardinelli, M., Palmiero, M., Sestieri, C., Nardo, D., Di Matteo, R., Londei, A., D’Ausilio, A., Ferretti, A., Del Gratta, C., Romani, G. L. (2009). An fMRI investigation on image generation in different sensory modalities: The influence of vividness. ActaPsychologica, 132(2), 190-200.
Paivio, A. (1969). Mental images in associative learning and memory. Psychological Review, 76(3), 241-263.
Palva, J. M., Monto, S., Kulashekhar, S., & Palva, S. (2010). Neuronal synchrony reveals working memory networks and predicts individual memory capacity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107(16), 7580-5.
Pessoa, L., Gutierrez, E., Bandettini, P., & Ungerleider, L. (2002). Neural correlates of visual working memory: fMRI amplitude predicts task performance. Neuron, 35, 975-987.
Poldrack, R. A., Wagner, A. D., Prull, M. W., Desmond, J. E., Glover, G. H., & Gabrieli, J. D. (1999). Functional specialization for semantic and phonological processing in the left inferior prefrontal cortex. NeuroImage, 10, 15-35.
Pylyshyn, Z. W. (1973). What the mind’s eye tells the mind’s brain: A critique of mental imagery. Psychological Bulletin, 80, 1-24.
Pylyshyn, Z. W. (2002). Mental imagery: In search of a theory. Behavioral & Brain Sciences, 25(2), 157-238.
Pylyshyn, Z. W. (2003). Seeing and visualizing: It’s not what you think. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Robb, B. E. (2016). A paradigm shift in classroom learning practices to propose methods aligned with a neuroeducationconceptual framework (Graduate theses and dissertations). Retrieved from http://pilotscholars.up.edu/etd/2
Segal, M. (2005). Dendritic spines and long-term plasticity. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 6, 277-284. doi:10.1038/nrn1649
Singer, W. (2009). Distributed processing and temporal codes in neuronal networks. Cognitive Neurodynamics, 3, 189-196.
Squire, L. R. (1987). Memory and brain. New York: Oxford University Press.
Stevenson, R. A., VanDerKlok, R. M., Pisoni, D. B., & James, T. W. (2011). Discrete neural substrates underlie complementary audiovisual speech integration processes. Neuroimage, 55(3), 1339-1345.
TAN, H. P. (1998). What’s in a Chinese character? Beijing: New World Press.
WANG, A. Y., & Thomas, M. H. (1992). The effect of imagery-based mnemonics on the long-term retention of Chinese characters. Language Learning, 42(3), 359-376.
WANG, C., & ZHENG, C. Q. (2005). Chinese characters in pictures (1 & 2). Beijing: Sinolingua.
Weekes, B. S., YIN, W., SU, F., & CHEN, M. J. (2006). The cognitive neuropsychology of reading and writing in Chinese. Language and Linguistics, 7(3), 595-617.
Wimmer, M., Maras, K., Robinson, E., & Thomas, C. (2016). The format of children’s mental images: Evidence from mental scanning. Cognition, 154, 49-54.
Womelsdorf, T. (2007). Modulation of neuronal interactions through neuronal synchronization. Science, 316, 1609-1612.
Wyra, M., Lawson, M., & Hungi, N. (2007). Ability to make images questionnaire (Database record). Retrieved from PsycTESTS. doi: 10.1037/t15783-000
ZHANG, H. F. (2005). Learning Chinese characters from Ms. Zhang: Reading and writing Chinese characters (A & B). Beijing: Beijing Language and Culture University Press.
Zull, J. (2011). From brain to mind using neuroscience to guide change in education. Sterling: Stylus Publishing.